Cloud Security for the IoT

This chapter provides a view into cloud services and security architectures designed to support the Internet of Things. Using cloud services and security best practices, organizations can operate and manage cross-organizational, multi-domain IoT deployments across trust boundaries. We examine Amazon Web Services (AWS) cloud and security offerings, components offered by Cisco (Fog Computing), as well as Microsoft Azure.

Closely bound to cloud and cloud security are big data aspects of the IoT that require security. We will delve into IoT data storage, data analytics, and reporting systems along with best practices on how to secure these services. Securing the various facets of IoT in the cloud also requires us to address what elements of security are the responsibilities of the customer versus the cloud provider.

This chapter addresses IoT cloud services and cloud security through the following sections:

• Cloud services and the IoT: In this section we will define the cloud as it relates to and benefits the IoT. In addition, we will identify unique requirements that IoT levies on the cloud. In this section, we will also identify and review IoT-related security threats both internal and external to the cloud before delving into cloud-based security controls and other offerings.

• Exploring cloud service provider (CSP) IoT offerings: We will explore a few CSPs and their software/security-as-a-service. We address Cisco's Fog Computing, Amazon's AWS, and Microsoft's Azure.

• Cloud IoT security controls: We examine the security functionality needed from the cloud to build out an effective IoT enterprise security architecture.

• Tailoring an enterprise IoT cloud security architecture: This section utilizes available cloud security offerings to mix and match into an effective, overall IoT cloud security architecture.

• New directions in cloud-enabled IoT computing: We step back from the cloud security discussion here to briefly explore new computing paradigms that the cloud is well poised to deliver.

Cloud services and the IoT

In terms of B2B, consumer and industrial IoT deployments, nothing connects devices, device data, individuals, and organizations together more than cloud-based IoT supporting services. Gateways, applications, protocol brokers, and a variety of data analytics and business intelligence components reside in the cloud for convenience, cost, and scalability. In terms of supporting billions of IoT devices, cloud-based services offer the most compelling environment for new or legacy companies to deploy services. In response, CSPs have begun to offer more and more features to support connecting IoT products in a secure way. Developer-friendly IoT cloud-based starter kits are entering the stage to help IoT product and service companies cloud deploy with minimal effort. Organizations that go the route of standardizing on these cloud connectivity solutions should perform due diligence to ensure that they understand the security controls built into each offering.

As an example, ARM recently worked with Freescale and IBM to create a cloud-enabled IoT starter kit (http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1325828). The kit includes an MCU that automatically streams data to a website on the Internet. Although the kit is geared towards training developers how to easily weave the cloud into IoT solutions, it is important that developers understand that doing so in production is very different and requires a security engineering process.

This section provides a discussion on some of the cloud services that are beginning to stand up in support of IoT systems. With organizations soon to deploy millions of IoT products across diverse systems, the cloud is the optimal mechanism for tracking the location and state of these devices. There will be other cloud services that spring up to support device provisioning, firmware updates, and configuration control as well. Given the ability to directly influence the functional and security state of an IoT device, the security of these services is paramount. Attackers will probably target these services, which, if compromised, would offer the ability to make large-scale changes to the state of many devices at once.

Asset/inventory management

One of the most important aspects of a secure IoT is the ability to track assets and inventories. This includes attributes of the devices as well. The cloud is a great solution for enabling enterprise asset/inventory management, providing a view into all devices that have been registered and authorized to operate within the organizations' boundaries.

Service provisioning, billing, and entitlement management

This is an interesting use case as many IoT device vendors will offer their devices to customers as a service. This requires the ability to track entitlements, authorize (or remove authorization for) device operations, as well as prepare billings in response to the amount of usage. Examples include subscription services for camera and other sensor-based monitoring (for example, DropCam cloud recording), wearables monitoring and tracking (for example, FitBit device services), and many others.

Real-time monitoring

Cloud applications used in support of mission-critical capabilities, such as emergency management, industrial control, and manufacturing may provide real-time monitoring capabilities. Where possible, many organizations are beginning to port industrial control system, industrial monitoring and other functions to the cloud to reduce operational costs, make the data more available and open up new B2B and B2C services. As the number of IoT endpoints proliferates, we will see devices such as programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and remote terminal units (RTUs) become direct connected to the cloud, supporting the ability to monitor systems more efficiently, and effectively.

Sensor coordination

Machine-to-machine transactions offer enhanced abilities to coordinate and even autonomously conduct service negotiations. Over time, workflows will become more automated, increasingly driving humans out of the transaction loop. The cloud will play a central role in enabling these automated workflows. As an example, cloud services will emerge that IoT devices can query to gather the latest information, restrictions, or instructions. The publish/subscribe protocols that drive many IoT implementations (for example, MQTT) as well as RESTful communications are both ideal for enabling these new use cases.

Customer intelligence and marketing

One of the powerful features of the IoT is the ability to tailor marketing to customers. Salesforce has created an IoT cloud aimed heavily at beacons and other smart devices. The cloud includes Thunder, which introduces a new real-time event engine. This system provides customers with the ability to automatically trigger messaging or send alerts to sales personnel. One good example is the concept of smart local advertisements. In these instances, customers are identified through some mechanism as they walk through a store or shopping center, for instance. Once identified, their purchase history, preferences or other characteristics are reviewed and tailored messaging is provided. From a privacy perspective, it is interesting to think through how either the tracking mechanism or the dossier collected can be used against a customer by a malicious party.

Other types of IoT customer intelligence includes energy efficiency improvements that benefit the environment. For example, home appliances can share usage data with cloud backend systems as part of a smart grid approach; device usage can be modulated based on need and price. By aggregating IoT appliance data that includes time and frequency of use, energy consumed, and current electrical market pricing, devices and users can respond by altering usage patterns to save energy costs and reduce environmental impact.

Information sharing

One of the primary benefits of the IoT is that it allows the sharing of information across many stakeholders. For example, an implantable medical device may provide information to a medical office, and that medical office may then provide that information to an insurance provider. The information may also be kept resident with other information gathered on a patient.

Information sharing and interoperability services of the cloud are mandatory prerequisites to enabling powerful IoT analytics. Given the diversity of IoT hardware platforms, services, and data structures, providers such as wot.io aim to provide middleware-layer data exchange services for the myriad data vendors' sources and sinks. Many IoT applications and supporting protocols are publish/subscribe-based, lending themselves naturally to middleware frameworks that can translate between the various data languages. Such services are critical to enabling data B2B, B2I, and B2C offerings.

Message transport/broadcast

The cloud and its centralized, adaptable, elastic capabilities is the ideal environment for implementing large scale IoT message transaction services. Many of the cloud services support HTTP, MQTT, and other protocols that, in various combinations, can transport, broadcast, publish data, subscribe to data or move data around in other necessary ways (centrally or at the network edge). One of the enormous hurdles with IoT data processing is the management of scale. Put plainly and simply, the IoT requires the cloud's architectural ability to elastically scale its data services—hence message transport/broadcast services—to meet unprecedented and growing demands.

Examining IoT threats from a cloud perspective

Many targeted threats to cloud-based infrastructures are identical or similar to those against non-cloud IT systems. The following threat profiles, among many others, are important to consider:

Threat area	Targets/Attacks
Cloud system administrators and users	Harvesting and use of administrator passwords, tokens and/or SSH keys to log into and wreak havoc on an organization's virtual private cloud (imagine the compromise of a corporation's AWS root account). Web browser cross-site scripting on user/manager host machines. Malicious payloads (for example, JavaScript-based) from web browsing or e-mail attachments (rooted administrator computers offer an attractive attack vector to compromise an organization's cloud-based enterprise, too).
Virtual endpoints (VMs, containers)	VM and other container vulnerabilities Web application vulnerabilities Insecure IoT gateways Insecure IoT brokers Misconfigured web servers Vulnerable databases (for example, SQL injection) or databases misconfigured for proper access controls
Networks	Virtual networking components Denial of service flooding of any endpoint
Physical and logical threats to IoT devices that connect to the cloud	Insecure IoT edge gateways (not in the cloud) Tampering and sniffing traffic or accessing data Tampering and injecting malicious payloads into the IoT communication protocol traffic between devices, edge gateways, and cloud gateways IoT device endpoint spoofing (communication redirects or lack of proper authentication/authorization) Lack of encryption/confidentiality Poor ciphersuites Lack of perfect-forward-secrecy Insecure database (plaintext or poor access control) storage on device Theft of IoT devices

The preceding list is just a small sample of security topics that need to be addressed when migrating to or making use of IoT infrastructures to the cloud. Fortunately, major cloud providers or their partners have answers to most of the above threats, at least those that exist within the CSP's trust boundary. Cloud-based security controls cannot, however, supplant device vendors' responsibilities for hardening IoT devices and ensuring their virtualized applications and Virtual Machine internals are hardened. These are challenges that deployment organizations must face.

In terms of the relative magnitude of cloud-based risks, in most cases the automated infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) capabilities of the cloud can likely lower the security risks to an organization operating IoT devices and systems. With relatively few exceptions, the security offerings available for hosted cloud infrastructure and services necessitate fewer cybersecurity professionals and can reduce high maintenance, on-premises security costs. Cloud-provisioned IaaS services are more likely to have consistently applied, secure-by-default configurations to VMs and networks, benefiting client organizations through security practice economies of scale. Before delving into cloud security for the IoT, we will first explore some of the IoT business offerings and benefits available in the cloud today.

Exploring cloud service provider IoT offerings

Cloud-based security offerings, also called security-as-a-service (SECaaS), represent a rapidly growing cloud-enabled business, and these offerings are ripe for supporting the IoT. Not only are SECaaS offerings scalable, but they also help organizations cope with the ever-worsening, limited supply of security engineering resources. Most companies today lack the people and knowledge needed to perform security integration, keep up with the latest security threats, architect security operations centers, and perform security monitoring. CSPs offer some solutions.

AWS IoT

Amazon is poised to be a leading enabler of cloud-based IoT services, and in many cases will be the IoT cloud service provider's cloud provider. In Amazon's own words:

"AWS IoT is a managed cloud platform that lets connected devices easily and securely interact with cloud applications and other devices. AWS IoT can support billions of devices and trillions of messages, and can process and route those messages to AWS endpoints and to other devices reliably and securely."

Source: http://aws.amazon.com/iot/

Amazon's AWS IoT is Amazon's framework that allows IoT devices to communicate with the cloud using a variety of protocols (HTTP, MQTT, and so on). Once in the cloud, IoT devices can speak with each other and services via application brokers. AWS IoT integrates with a variety of other Amazon services. For example, you can utilize its real-time data streaming and analytics engine, Kinesis. Kinesis Firehose operates as the ingestion platform accepting data streams and loading it into other Amazon domains: Simple Storage Service (S3), Redshift (data warehousing), and Amazon Elastic Search (ES). Once in the appropriate data platform, a variety of analytics can be performed using Kinesis Streams and the forthcoming Kinesis Analytics. Amazon Glacier (https://aws.amazon.com/glacier/) provides scalable, long-term data archiving and backup for less frequently accessed data.

In terms of supporting IoT applications and IoT development, AWS IoT integrates well with Amazon Lambda, Kinesis, S3, CloudWatch, DynamoDB, and a variety of other Amazon-provisioned cloud services:

A variety of industries have begun to engage the Amazon IoT platform, including healthcare. For example, Philips has partnered to make use of the AWS IoT services as the engine for its HealthSuite Digital platform. This platform is designed to allow medical service providers and patients to interact in transformative new ways using IoT healthcare devices, traditional data sources, analytics, and reporting. Many other IoT-related companies are beginning to leverage or partner with AWS in their IoT portfolios.

CSP IoT services such as AWS IoT offer the ability to preconfigure IoT devices and then upload the configurations to the physical devices when they are ready to bring online. Once operational, AWS IoT offers a virtual Thing Shadow that can maintain the state of your IoT device even when offline. The configuration state is kept in a JSON document stored in the cloud. So, for example, if a MQTT-enabled light bulb is offline, a MQTT command can be sent to the virtual things repository to change its color. When the lightbulb comes back online, it will change its color appropriately:

The AWS Thing Shadow is an intermediary between a controlling application and the IoT device. Thing shadows leverage the MQTT protocol with predefined topics that can be used to interact with the service and devices. MQTT messages that are reserved for the Thing Shadow service begin with $aws/things/thingName/shadow. The following are the reserved MQTT topics that can be used to interact with the shadow (https://docs.aws.amazon.com/iot/latest/developerguide/thing-shadow-mqtt.html):

• /update

• /update/accepted

• /update/documents

• /update/rejected

• /update/delta

• /get

• /get/accepted

• /get/rejected

• /delete

• /delete/accepted

• /delete/rejected

Things can either update or get the Thing Shadow. AWS IoT publishes a JSON document for each update and responds to each update and get request with status of /accepted or /rejected.

From a security perspective, it is important that only authorized endpoints and applications are able to publish to these topics. It is also imperative that the administrative console be locked down sufficiently to keep unauthorized actors from gaining access to directly configure IoT assets.

To illustrate some of the AWS IoT data processing workflow, let's explore an additional use case for a connected farm that leverages the data processing capabilities of the AWS cloud. Special thanks to Steve Csicsatka for assistance with this diagram:

In this use case, there are a number of endpoints that are injecting data into the AWS cloud. Data enters AWS through a number of potential front doors:

• Kinesis

• Kinesis Firehose

• MQTT broker

Once inside AWS, the AWS IoT rules engine functions as the decision point to determine where data should be routed and any additional actions to take on the data. In many instances, data will be sent to a database—for example, S3 or DynamoDB. Redshift can also be employed and should be used to preserve records over time, as well as for long-term data storage.

Within the AWS IoT suite, one can take advantage of the integrated log management features through CloudWatch. CloudWatch can be configured directly within AWS IoT to log process events on messages flowing from devices to the AWS infrastructure. Message logging can be set to errors, warnings, informational, or debug. Although debug provides the most comprehensive messages, these also take up additional storage space:

Amazon CloudTrail should also be leveraged for an AWS-based IoT deployment. CloudTrail supports account-level AWS API calls to enable security analysis, analytics, and compliance tracking. There are many third-party log management systems, such as Splunk, AlertLogic, and SumoLogic that integrate directly with CloudTrail.

Microsoft Azure IoT suite

Microsoft has also taken a big leap into the IoT cloud space with its Azure IoT Hub.

Azure boasts some powerful IoT device management features for IoT implementers, including device software/firmware updating and configuring. Beyond IoT device management, Azure provides features that allow IoT deployers to organize and group devices within their operational domains. In other words, it enables IoT device-level topology management as well as per-device configuration, a prerequisite to establishing group-level management, permissions, and access control.

Azure's group management service is provided through the device group API, while its device management features, software versioning, and provisioning, and so on, are provided through its device registry management API (https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/documentation/articles/iot-hub-devguide/). Centralized authentication is provided using the existing Azure Active Directory authentication framework.

The Azure IoT Hub supports IoT-related protocols such as MQTT, HTTP, and AMQP to enable device-to-cloud and cloud-to-device communication. Given the inevitable variety of communication standards, Azure provides cross-protocol fusion capabilities to developers via a generic IoT Hub message format. The message format consists of a variety of system and application property fields. If needed, device-to-cloud communications can leverage Azure's existing event hub APIs, but if per-device authentication and access control are needed, the IoT Hub will support this.

Per-device authentication and access control in Azure are enabled through the use of IoT Hub security tokens that map to each device's access policy and credentials. Token-based authentication allows authentication to take place without transmitting sensitive security parameters across the wire. Tokens are based upon a unique Azure-generated key that is generated using the accompanying manufacturer or implementer-provided device ID.

To illustrate some of the Azure IoT data processing workflow, let's return to our connected farm IoT system and examine the backend configuration within Azure. As with AWS, there are various entry points into the cloud for connected devices. Data can be ingested into Azure through the API gateway or through the IoT services, which support REST and MQTT. Data can then be sent to blob storage or to DocumentDB. Also note that the Azure Content Delivery Network (CDN) is a good tool for distribution of firmware updates to your IoT device inventory:

Cisco Fog Computing

Cisco's IoT strategy for the cloud addresses the fact that the vast majority of IoT devices operate at the network edge versus in a region close to centralized cloud processing. Hence, the term fog, visible moisture at the ground (edge) versus central cloud (sky) represents Cisco's rebranding of the well-known concept of edge computing. The sheer scale of the IoT, Cisco is betting, will require much more powerful functional and security resources integrated into network and application stacks at organizations' network edges. The benefits of keeping data and processing as edge-central as possible include the following:

• Reduced latency: Many data-intensive edge applications for the IoT are real-time because they involve vast amounts of sensor data, localized decision making, and response

• Data and network efficiency: Data volumes that comprise the IoT are enormous and there are many cases where porting the data makes no sense in terms of clogging networks just to move it around for application and security treatment

• Policies can be locally managed and controlled based on local edge conditions

• Reliability, availability, and security at the IoT edge are improved based on local needs

The preceding benefits are perhaps most tangible to the industrial IoT where central-only cloud processing just won't do. Time-sensitive sensor streams, controllers, and actuators, monitoring and reporting applications and voluminous datasets associated with the industrial IoT make Fog Computing an appealing model.

Cisco's Fog Computing, though early in its lifecycle, is already implemented in the IOx (https://developer.cisco.com/site/iox/technical-overview/), a middleware framework that sits between hardware and applications running directly on edge equipment.

The basic IOx architecture consists of the following:

• Fog nodes: These represent the devices (for example, routers and switches) that comprise edge networks and provide host resources to the Fog framework.

• Host OS: Sitting on Fog nodes is the Host OS that supports the following:

  •  

    1. Cisco Application Framework (CAF) for local application management and control

    2. Applications (of many possible types)

    3. Network and middleware services

• Fog director: Connected to the CAF's northbound APIs, the Fog director provides the centralized application management and repositories for apps running on all of Fog nodes. Administration via the Fog director is accessed through the Fog portal.

IoT Fog Computing development is supported by Cisco DevNet Software Development Kits. IoT organizations can also make use of existing Cisco cybersecurity solutions such as Cisco NetFlow, TrustSec, and identity services engine (ISE).

IBM Watson IoT platform

IBM Watson barely needs an introduction. The world became intimately familiar with its capabilities back in 2010 when the Watson cognitive computing platform began to beat the best champions on the famous game show Jeopardy. Watson's cognitive computing ability to learn and solve problems from gargantuan ingested datasets is being put to good use in a variety of industries, such as healthcare. Today, IBM is augmenting Watson's processing domain by applying it to the Internet of Things. IBM's foundational IoT APIs are available through the IBM Watson IoT Platform Development Center (https://developer.ibm.com/iotfoundation/ and https://developer.ibm.com/iotfoundation/recipes/api-documentation/) and include IoT interfacing capabilities such as the following:

• Inventory and viewing of an organization's IoT devices

• Registering, updating, and viewing devices

• Operating on historical, ingested datasets

MQTT and REST interfaces

IoT device transactions and communications are facilitated by the platform's support of MQTT and REST communication protocols (https://docs.internetofthings.ibmcloud.com/devices/mqtt.html), allowing IoT developers to build powerful data ingestion, cognitive analytics, and data output capabilities.

The Watson IoT platform's MQTT API allows unencrypted connections on port 1883 and encrypted communications on ports 8883 or 443. It is good to note that the platform requires TLS 1.2. The IBM recommended ciphersuites are as follows:

• ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384

• AES256-GCM-SHA384

• ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256

• AES128-GCM-SHA256

Registration of devices requires the use of the TLS connection, as the MQTT password is transmitted back to the client protected by the TLS tunnel.

When MQTT is used for device connectivity to the cloud, the option exists to use a token instead of an MQTT password. In this case, the value use-token-auth is provided in place of the password.

The REST interface is secured with TLS 1.2 as well. The allowable port is 443 and the application API key serves as the username, while an authentication token is used as the password, in support of HTTP basic authentication.

Cloud IoT security controls

Given the variety of cloud-based services that support IoT deployments, each cloud and stakeholder endpoint plays a vital role in securing the multitude of transactions. This section provides a brief listing of recommended IoT security controls and services that your organization should consider. Basic controls such as authentication and encryption to the cloud are supported by all of the CSPs, but you should carefully review and consider your CSP based on their offerings in other areas.

Most CSPs bundle the services in different ways. Your organization can either directly or indirectly obtain and benefit from these services based on unique package offerings. These services can be combined in different ways to build powerful, transitive trust relationships throughout your virtualized infrastructure.

Authentication (and authorization)

Considering authentication security controls, your organization will need to handle most or all of the following:

1. Verify administrator authenticity for individuals accessing administrative functions and APIs (multi-factor authentication is preferred here, given the enormous sensitivity of administrative controls on your virtual infrastructure).

2. Authenticate end users to cloud applications.

3. Authenticate cloud applications (including IoT gateways and brokers) from one to the other.

4. Directly authenticate IoT devices (that have the requisite security and functional resources) to gateways and brokers.

5. Proxy-authenticate end users from application provider to another.

A variety of authentication mechanisms are supported by CSPs. Amazon AWS and Microsoft Azure are described in the following sections.

Amazon AWS IAM

The AWS IAM authentication service supported by the Amazon cloud is a multi-featured authentication platform that supports federated identity, multi-factor authentication, user/role/permission management, and full integration with other Amazon services.

The AWS multi-factor (for example, token-based) authentication (MFA) service of the IAM supports a variety of MFA form factors to suit either your organization's new or existing authentication framework. Hardware tokens, key fobs, access cards, and virtualized MFA devices (for example, those that may run on a mobile device) are supported by Amazon. MFA can be used both by your virtual private cloud administrators as well as by your end users.

Transitive trust authorization flows between multiple web applications (especially from browsers) can be obtained by using OAuth2.0 (RFC6749), an open standard for authorization that allows secure, delegated access to third-party web services. OAuth2 provides authorization access only, however. Authentication functionality can be obtained by utilizing an OpenID Connect (OIDC) service that is built on OAuth2. OIDC makes use of identification tokens acquired via the OAuth2 transaction to support authorization for users.

Azure authentication

As stated earlier, Microsoft Azure provides centralized and federated identity authentication as well through its Azure Active Directory (AD) authentication framework.

Microsoft Azure also offers both OAuth2 and OpenID Connect identity-as-a-service within its Azure AD offering. Amazon AWS offers this capability as well as part of its identity and access management offering. If your chosen cloud provider does not offer OpenID Connect but does offer OAuth2, you may also be able to integrate the OAuth2 service from provider 1 with the OpenID Connect service (for authentication tokens) from provider 2, though this may not be as seamless as coming from a single provider.

Software/firmware updates

An enormous number of vulnerabilities in software and firmware execution stacks can be mitigated by quick, easy, and highly automated patching frameworks. We strongly recommend you implement an automated, secure firmware/software update capability to end devices. Fresh executables or executable chunks (patches) should be digitally signed within your DevOps environment by a hardened software signing service. In terms of the end devices, you should ensure that software and firmware updates propagating to end IoT devices are capable of being validated by those end devices.

Some CSPs support software/firmware services such as Azure CDN and so on.

End-to-end security recommendations

Consider the following end-to-end security recommendations in your IoT cloud deployment:

• Ensure that security is not lost at the gateway. Ideally, end-to-end authentication and integrity protections should persist from the CSP to the IoT devices with the gateways simply acting as pass-throughs. Although this is not always possible, take alternate defensive actions when deployed sensor nodes rely upon the gateway to validate the authenticity and integrity of firmware updates and commands.

• Apply the rigor of secure software development practices to the web services and databases that serve the IoT devices.

• Sufficiently protect the cloud applications that support the analysis and reporting workflows.

• Apply secure configurations to the databases that feed the analysis and reporting applications.

• Apply integrity protections to the IoT device data. This requires the use of integrity protections on data transmitted from the IoT device to the gateway as well as the gateway to the cloud.

• Leased devices will operate within the customer environment and service providers will not want to inadvertently infect their customer networks with malware (and vice versa). Segregation of these devices on customer networks should be enforced when possible. This use case opens up potential for fraud and/or theft from stealing services, and as such it is important to design the devices in a manner that prevents tampering. This can be accomplished using tamper-evident or tamper-responsive protections that are described in resources such as NIST FIPS 140-2.

• Protect against denial of service attacks by using robust, properly configured load balancing application gateways (a number of superb industry solutions exist for this now).

• Provide assurances that the data being transmitted to the IoT devices (or gateways) is authenticated by the devices themselves.

• Encrypt the data when needed.

• Transactions and messaging between devices themselves (M2M) must be authenticated (and integrity protected)

• In all cases, service providers should be able to track the privacy controls associated with information generated by a person or by a device that can be tied to a person. In the case of the medical device, has the patient been notified and authorized the use of not only the data generated while in medical offices, but also for any data that is uploaded to the cloud by connected devices? Notifications should also include any organization that the data may be shared with.

• Maintaining control of data through to destruction is not possible when the data may have been passed on to potentially many other organizations; however, service providers should make attempts to obtain privacy agreements with peer organizations. Additionally, assess the adequacy of the security controls implemented by those other organizations.

• Implement flexible access controls (use attribute-based access controls for higher resolution access decisions).

• Tag data for privacy protections.

• Provide notifications on data use.

Maintain data integrity

How can you assure the integrity of data that will be used for myriad purposes and by potentially many stakeholders? In the context of an enterprise IoT system, the ability to trust the data collected is critical. This drives a need for the following:

• Authentication and integrity controls applied to the IoT devices to ensure rogue devices cannot transmit data into the cloud.

• Secure configuration of gateway devices. Gateway devices may be installed on-site or operate in the cloud, but these gateways devices process large quantities of data and as such should be secured via:

  •  

    1. Security logging and analysis in a SIEM.

    2. Secure configurations (operating system, database, application).

    3. Firewall protection.

    4. Encrypted communications on each interface. This requires the use of encrypted communication on the cloud-facing interface. This is typically accomplished with Transport Layer Security (TLS) and an appropriate ciphersuite. On the sensor-facing interface, encrypted RF communications is strongly recommended.

    5. Strong authentication using PKI certificates if possible.

• Software security measures for the web service that interfaces with and collects data from the gateways or devices.

• Secure infrastructure configurations (for example, web server) supporting the IoT web service.

Secure bootstrap and enrollment of IoT devices

In order to have confidence in the credentials used by a particular device to authenticate to services and gateways, care must be taken during the initial provisioning of trust to devices. Depending on the criticality of a particular device, bootstrap can occur at the vendor, or in-person by a trusted agent. Completing bootstrap and enrollment results in the ability to provision operational certificates to devices in a secure manner (and over a network).

Security monitoring

IoT gateways/brokers should be configured to look for suspicious behavior of the endpoints. As an example, MQTT brokers should capture messages from publishers and subscribers that may signal malicious behavior. The MQTT Specification Version 3.1.1 provides examples of behaviors to report:

• Repeated connection attempts

• Repeated authentication attempts

• Abnormal termination of connections

• Topic scanning

• Sending undeliverable messages

• Clients that connect but do not send data

Note

Note that tuning an SIEM to identify potential misuse of IoT systems requires thought. An understanding of how the behavior of a specific IoT device can be correlated with events occurring in other parts of the overall system is required.

Tailoring an enterprise IoT cloud security architecture

There are many architectural aspects and options for cloud-enabling an IoT system. CSPs, IoT service providers, and enterprise adopters must examine the capabilities being provided to focus the appropriate security controls in an architecturally supportive framework.

The following diagram is a genericized virtual private cloud from a cloud service provider that offers basic functional and security services to protect endpoint-to-endpoint data transactions. It shows typical, virtualized services available for general IT as well as IoT-enabled deployments. Not all IoT deployers will need to make use of all the cloud capabilities available, but most will require a minimal cross-section of the above services, and require them to be well protected:

Faced with building out a security architecture against the above system, one must remember that tailoring an enterprise IoT cloud security architecture is really about assembling the primitive security architecture constructs and services already available from your CSP (for your own use) than inventing or adapting everything from scratch. That said, the following activities—some of which have been discussed in detail in this book (thus are not listed in as much detail here)—are strongly advised:

1. Conduct a detailed threat model by first characterizing your system and security starting point:

   1. Identify all existing IoT device types, protocols, and platforms.

   2. Identify and categorize based on sensitivity and privacy all IoT data originating from the IoT devices at the network edge.

   3. Determine the nearby and distant data producers, consumers of the sensitive data.

   4. Identify all system endpoints, their physical and logical security characteristics, and who controls and administers them.

   5. Identify all organizations whose people interact with the IoT services and datasets and/or manage, maintain, and configure devices. Ascertain how each is enrolled into the system, obtains permissions, accesses it, and is (as needed) tracked or audited.

   6. Determine data storage, reuse, and protections needed at rest and in transit.

   7. Based on risks, determine what data types need to be protected point-to-point (also identifying those points) and which need to be protected end-to-end so that the end consumer or data sink can be guaranteed of the data's origin, integrity, and (if needed) confidentiality.

   8. If a field gateway is required, examine the South and North protocols required by that platform to 1) communicate with the field devices (for example, ZigBee) and 2) coalesce and transmit those communications to the cloud gateway (for example, HTTP coupled with TLS).

   9. Finalize a risk and privacy assessment against the data to ascertain necessary controls that may currently be lacking from the CSP.

2. (Cloud-specific) Formulate a security architecture from the following:

   1. Security provisions directly available from the CSP.

   2. Add-on cloud-based security services that are available from the CSP's partners or through compatible, interoperable third-party services.

3. Develop and adapt policies and procedures:

   1. Data security and data privacy treatment.

   2. User and admin roles, services, and security requirements (for example, identify where multi-factor authentication is needed in protecting certain resources).

4. Adopt and implement your own security architecture into the frameworks and APIs supported by the CSP.

5. Integrate security practices (the NIST Risk Management Framework addresses this well).

New directions in cloud-enabled IOT computing

Before closing out this chapter, we thought it worthwhile to list both some additional IoT-enabling characteristics of the cloud as well as some new, potential future directions and use cases of the cloud-connected IoT.

IoT-enablers of the cloud

The cloud has many characteristics, some described above, that make it an attractive, adaptive, and enabling technology stack from which to envision, build, and deploy new IoT services. This section provides just a few.

Software defined networking (SDN)

SDNs emerged as next-generation network management capabilities to simplify and reduce the amount of work to reconfigure networks and manage policy-based routes. In other words, they were created to make the network itself more programmable and dynamic, an absolute necessity for the enormous scale and flexibility needed to manage our world's IoT traffic. SDN architectures function by decoupling network control from the forwarding functions. They are comprised of SDN controllers that implement 1) a northbound API or bridge that connects to network applications, and 2) a Southbound API that connects the network controllers to the fielded network devices that perform traffic forwarding.

IoT architectures that leverage large cloud services already benefit from SDN. Large virtualization systems that host management servers, brokers, gateways to the fielded IoT devices, and other IoT architectural elements are built into Amazon, Google, and other cloud providers. Over time, we expect to see much more fine-grained capabilities emerge in the ability to create, adapt, and dynamically customize one's own IoT network. SDNs are being used today by security vendors tackling distributed denial of service (DDOS) challenges and enterprises should look to tailor their implementations to support that functionality.

Data services

Given the gargantuan quantities of data, data sources, and data sinks in the IoT, the cloud environment provides capable tools for managing and structuring this data. For example, Amazon's DynamoDB offers extremely scalable, low-latency, NoSQL database capabilities for powering various IoT data storage, sharing, and analytics services. Through an easy-to-use web frontend, developers create and manage tables, logs, access, and other data control features. A benefit to IoT organizations of any size is that pricing models are proportionate to the quantity of data actually used.

Data security, authentication, and access control can be implemented on a per-table basis in DynamoDB, leveraging the AWS identity and access management system. This means that a single organization can perform a variety of analytics, produce derivative data populated in distinct tables, then selectively make that data available via an application to its many unique customers.

Container support for secure development environments

One of the challenges faced in IoT development environments is the diverse nature of IoT hardware platforms. A variety of platforms come with different software development kits, APIs, and drivers. The programming languages used across different hardware also vary, from C to embedded C to Python and many others. A reusable development environment that can be shared across a development team will need to be flexible enough to support these scenarios.

One approach to supporting a highly flexible IoT development environment is through the use of container technology. Using this technology, containers can be built with the libraries and packages required to develop the current device type. These containers can be replicated and shared across the development team as a development baseline. As new types of IoT devices are developed by the team, new baselines can be created for use that add new software library stacks.

Containers for deployment support

Using Docker (http://www.docker.com/) as a development tool provides a valuable advantage for storing, deploying, and managing the workflow of IoT device images. Docker was designed with the capability of enabling developers and system administrators to deploy software/firmware images directly to IoT hardware. This approach has two additional benefits:

• Device images can be updated (not just initially deployed) through Docker.

• Docker can be integrated with a test system such as Ravello for full testing of the IoT system. Ravello Systems (https://www.ravellosystems.com) offers a powerful framework for deploying and testing VMWare/KVM applications virtually in self-contained cloud capsules running in AWS or Google cloud.

While Docker offers a powerful ability to deploy containers, another technology, Google's open source Kubernetes, leverages Docker to allow organizations to manage large clusters of containers. The distributed computing ability of large, easily managed clusters of containers is an enormous IoT enabler.

Microservices

Microservices are a renewed concept of modularizing large, monolithic enterprise applications (web UI and REST APIs, database, core business logic, and so on) into small, bite-sized services much like a service oriented architecture (SOA). The technology provides an approach to simplifying and mitigating the complexity of enterprise applications that tend to grow and snowball in response to changing requirements. While conceptually similar to SOA, microservice architectures decompose large system needs into separately virtualized, self-contained application VMs. Each typically comes with its own business logic, data backend, and APIs connecting to other microservices. In the microservice architecture, each individual microservice is virtually-instantiated into the container type (for example, Docker, VMWare) of choice.

Microservice architectures can not only simplify long-term development and maintenance of small- or large-scale cloud applications, they also lend themselves naturally to cloud elasticity. If you have an enterprise consisting of a dozen microservices and two of them (perhaps account registration or a notification service) are in demand, the cloud architecture can spin up new microservice containers for just the impacted services.

Businesses are enabled to dream up new IoT enterprise applications that leverage the IoT's data-rich environment; using microservices, they can quickly assemble new services and dynamically scale them in response to data and processing ebbs and flows. In addition, Agile development processes are much easier to maintain as each Agile team can tightly focus on one or two individual microservices.

The move to 5G connectivity

While the US, Europe, and Asia reconcile their differences in the formulation of the as-yet-to-be-defined 5G standard, a number of its salient features promise to revolutionize and boost the number of things, use cases, and applications that leverage the Internet. Ubiquitous networking through 5G will be a key enabler of the Internet of Things in its ability to support orders of magnitude more devices at significantly higher data rates (~10x) than LTE networks. Thus far, competing views on the specification of 5G have agreed on the following (http://www.techrepublic.com/article/does-the-world-really-need-5g/):

• Data rates should start at 1 GB/s, and evolve to multi-GB/s

• Latency should be brought under 1 ms

• 5G equipment should be much more energy efficient than its predecessors

Given the IP address space of IPv6 and the near-future of 5G (and beyond) connectivity, it is no wonder that many forward-thinking companies are investing heavily and preparing for unimaginable growth for the IoT.

Cloud-enabled directions

This section provides just a few examples, based on the above cloud enablers, of what is possible using centralized and distributed cloud processing to push the IoT in amazing new directions.

On-demand computing and the IoT (dynamic compute resources)

The so-called sharing economy has ushered in services such as Uber, Lyft, Airbnb, home-based solar energy redistribution to the electric grid, and other business paradigms that allow resource owners (of cars, apartments, solar panels, and so on) to offer up spare cycles in exchange for something. On-demand computing (ODC) is still relatively new and in its infancy, but it is leveraged significantly in cloud-based elastic architectures. Compute resources are scheduled, delivered, and billed on-demand based on a dynamically changing client demand.

The enormous benefits of the cloud to the IoT may be surpassed by its inverse. Enabled